Fly infestations pose a big challenge for poultry operations. Whether concentrated during a pit system, holding shed, or on a litter floor, poultry manure is a perfect medium for fly reproduction. Introduction Large fly populations can cause discomfort, stress, and fly biology and ecology decreased production in egg-laying chickens, pullets, and breeders.
Flies also function a vector of both bird and human diseases. In extreme cases, failure to regulate flies may end in poor community relations or maybe litigation. Fly control and prevention is important for fulfillment within the rearing and production of egglaying chickens.
A basic understanding of the life cycle of flies and their interaction with their environment is vital for developing strategies to scale back their impact. the subsequent is concentrated on the house fly (musca domestica), a serious pest on poultry farms.
Health Risks of Flies Flies are known to be vectors for several diseases of both humans and livestock, and are considered a symbol of unsanitary conditions. Flies may transmit disease by carrying viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi on their bodies, or through their mouthparts after contacting or ingesting infectious materials.
Chickens may eat flies at any life stage, and may become infected by ingesting the insects or by direct contact. Fly populations can also create a reservoir for disease on poultry farms, making disease treatment and elimination harder. Figure 2 outlines several major diseases of concern for poultry that flies may carry, though there are more [2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9]. Life Cycle Flies undergo four distinct life cycle stages: egg, larva (maggot), pupa, and adult fly.
The lifespan of flies from egg to adult is typically 2–3 weeks, but can vary counting on environmental factors including temperature, and be as long as 3 months under cool conditions. Figures 3 and 4 give an summary of those life stages [9].
Breeding Sites Flies reproduce and lay their eggs in rotting, decayed, or fermenting organic matter (e.g. garbage, manure, etc.) with moisture content between 50–85%. Fresh poultry manure has approximately 75–80% moisture content, making it highly desirable as a medium for development of fly populations [5].
Diet Fly larvae have chewing mouth-parts, and consume any rotting organic material in their environment. Adult flies have sucking mouthparts (proboscis), and must consume food that's already during a liquid state, or are often dissolved by their acidic saliva. Eggs and pupae stage flies don't eat, and survive entirely on stored energy [9]. Behaviour and Distribution As with diet, the behaviour and distribution of flies varies by life-stage.
Eggs are laid in organic material with 50–85% moisture content. Larvae remain during this environment, burrowing into the fabric. they need to remain near the surface where conditions are moist, and that they have access to oxygen. Their only activities are feeding and hiding. because the larvae mature they hunt down drier material, and dig deeper beneath the surface (1–3 cm) [9]
. After the adult fly emerges it's mainly active during daylight when it breeds and eats. Adult fly populations may have an activity range of 0.8–3.2 km (0.5–2.0 miles). they will travel much further by “hitching a ride” during a travelling car or truck. in the dark and any time once they aren't eating or breeding, adults are considered at rest, or "roosting."
Adults roost on any stable surface they will find (floors, walls, ceilings, furniture, plants, fences, garbage cans, etc.), preferring locations on the brink of breeding or feeding sites. they'll also adapt their activity somewhat to artificial lighting schedules [5, 9].
Adult flies are most active at temperatures between 20–25°C (68–77°F) with low humidity. At higher temperatures (greater than 95°F/35°C), they're going to spend longer resting, and should like better to be outdoors. At temperatures below 10°C (50°F), adult flies and pupae may remain alive, but dormant [9].
Monitoring Systematic monitoring of fly populations helps in deciding about when and where to deploy insecticides. It can also provide for a legal record within the event of a public health or nuisance complaints concerning flies originating from the farm.
a uniform and reliable fly surveillance method provides a more accurate point of reference for fly numbers than simple observation of adult flies.
Sticky fly tape is inexpensive and should help with identification of fly species. Hanging of tape within the aisles of chicken houses must be done strategically in areas where flies are more likely to circulate (such as near manure belts, or water lines), or fly numbers may appear less than they really are. Additionally, tape may become clogged with dust making them ineffective within a couple of days.
an alternate use of is to require a moving tape count; walking a routine area of likely fly activity in each house (304 m/1,000 ft), while holding tape and counting the amount of flies caught. Fly speck cards are another inexpensive means of fly monitoring (Figure 6).
White index cards (8x12 cm/3x5 in) are often hung from the ceiling or rafters of the manure pit and other fly resting areas. Fly specks (brown spots left when flies land on the cards) are counted weekly. Fifty spots/card per week may be a standard beyond which fly treatment with bait and residual adulticides is named for.
100 spots/card per week or more indicates use of a contact adulticide. Cards should be checked and altered a minimum of once every week, but may have to be screened and altered more often if fly numbers are high. Cards should be strategically positioned within the same location. Cards are easily dated and filed for record-keeping purposes.
Fly traps are often hung from wire or placed on the ground of manure pit. Traps should be checked and bait replaced a minimum of once every week. Traps are more costly to line up and alter than speck cards, but they kill flies and permit for the identification of fly species. Screening for larvae within the manure pit is as important as monitoring for adult flies.
The manure pit should be walked daily to screen for wet spots or areas where flies are visibly concentrated. Manure is often dug up to seem for eggs and larva slightly below the surface. This provides a chance for the precise application of larvicide and manure drying chemicals.
Daily manure production covers treated areas, necessitating regular inspection of Hell [6, 9]. Fly control strategies Developing an efficient fly control program is vital for the success of any poultry operation.
the foremost successful programs combine multiple control methods with diligent monitoring to minimize the economic and health threats posed by flies. Sanitation Manure management is that the single most vital aspect of fly control in poultry operations. Drying manure to but 50% moisture content makes it a poor environment for fly reproduction. The manure pit must be walked daily to screen for fly blooms and wet spots.
When wet spots are found the source of excess moisture must be identified and corrected. Common sources include leaking water lines, condensation from faulty insulation, improper ventilation (drying failure), and leaks from outside.
Ventilation of the manure area with exhaust fans and air-circulating fans within the manure pit is vital to assist in manure drying. Both indoor and outdoor manure and feed spills should be minimized and cleared as soon as they're noticed.
Dead birds, also as cracked, dirty, and floor eggs should be disposed of quickly and securely as far away from the chicken house as possible. Maintain clean office, entry, and break areas.
Clearing grass, weeds, and clippings near the facility’s perimeter or in nearby features like drainage ditches eliminates potential outdoor fly resting areas [5, 6, 9]. Structural Defences Maintenance of biosecurity barriers prevents outdoor flies and other pests from entering bird areas.
search for and seal cracks and breaches within the barn and connected structures like feed bins and manure loadout sheds. Doors should be opened only absolutely necessary. Generally, enough force is produced by exhaust fans within the chicken house or manure pit to stop flies from entering against active airflow.
However, when fans aren't running they supply a perfect access portal for flies to enter the building. Fan louvers should be closed to stop flies from entering the building when fans are off. If fan louvers, or the other area, must remain open for passive airflow, the opening should be screened with a fine, securely installed mesh. Physical fly traps placed near major access points can attract flies far away from breeding areas.
Baited traps are often made up of jugs, cans, or buckets and placed near portals or hung from the rafters of Hell. Sticky fly tape is a smaller amount expensive and should serve an equivalent purpose. Both of those traps can also be used for fly monitoring but must be regularly checked and replaced to stay effective.
Electrocute light traps (“bug zappers”) are effective, but costly, and are therefore of greater value in human working (offices, egg sorting rooms, etc.) and egg storage and transfer areas [6, 9]. Biological Defences Maintaining populations of other organisms that compete with or feed on flies can help to go with other elements of a fly control program.
Special attention must be paid in selecting which species to use for fly control so as to not introduce a replacement pest. for instance, his beetles are well-known predators of fly eggs, and dump flies can successfully outcompete house flies, but both of those species can still carry and transfer poultry diseases.
Certain mites thrive in poultry manure (Macrocheles muscle domesticate and Fuscurooda vegetans) and prey on fly eggs and larvae, but care must be taken to not confuse them with other mite species that are parasitic to chickens. Parasitic wasps are often purchased commercially and introduced near fly breeding areas.
once they emerge, they're going to hunt down fly pupae and lay eggs inside them, killing the fly at this life stage. Large fly populations can quickly overwhelm biological control methods, in order that they should be utilized in conjunction with other strategies [2, 3, 8].
In integrating parasitic wasps into a control strategy, it's important to remember that a lot of knockdown adulticides also will kill the wasps. In addition to insects, microorganisms that harm flies could also be introduced into the farm system. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis causes disease in flies, but not chicken or people.
Where available, it's going to be spread on manure directly, or fed through the chicken as a feed additive [7].
Chemical Control There are four basic sorts of chemical insecticide fly control: larvicides, residual adulticides, baits, and get in touch with adulticides. Larvicides include contact larvicides and bug growth regulators (IGRs). they'll be sprayed onto maggot-infested areas directly, or, when manure is extremely wet, could also be applied as a dry granule.
Residual adulticides are sprayed on surfaces where newly emerged flies are likely to rest. Residues may last from days to months counting on the merchandise, and therefore the surface it's applied to (porous surfaces like wood may absorb the chemical rapidly).
Examples of residual adulticides by class are outlined in Table B. Follow local regulations regarding the utilization of fly control products in poultry facilities. Baits will attract flies and may be utilized in traps or as spot-on treatments indoors and outdoors. Some neonicotinoid, ryanoid, and carbamate class baits are outlined in Table C.
Contact adulticides are often fogged, misted, or sprayed as a final resort when other control measures come short. These are generally pyrethrin or permethrin class products. ask Table D for instance contact adulticides [2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9].
Resistance and Rotation Unfortunately, overuse of popular insecticide products over the years has led to the event of resistant fly populations. Rotation of the merchandise used can help reduce the likelihood of resistance emerging. When rotating products changes should be made on the idea of chemical class (e.g. organophasphate or pyrethroid) instead of the brand.
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